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Applications

• The combined techniques of liquid–liquid phase separation imaging, Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and X‑Ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (XPCS) enable quantification of molecular mobility, exchange kinetics, and material states (liquid, gel, solid) of biomolecular condensates in vitro and in cells.
• They can be applied to study phase transitions, ageing or maturation of condensates (e.g., toward solid or pathological states) in disease contexts such as neurodegeneration.

Limits

• XPCS requires access to high-coherence X-ray sources (synchrotrons / XFELs) and careful sample handling to avoid radiation damage, limiting its general availability.
• FRAP and microscopy report on relatively large-scale/slow dynamics and may not resolve nanoscale motions or heterogeneous sub-populations within condensates; additionally, artefacts (bleaching, phototoxicity, surface effects) can distort interpretation.