Historical and global context informing the ethnography

Malawi’s current economic situation, and wider transnational inequities, stem from five key global dynamics (box 1).⁵⁰

Colonial processes

Colonial influences on postcolonial regimes in newly independent nations

Structural adjustment programmes

Recent international systems of trade

Global climate inequity

Malawi, as Nyasaland, was under British control from 1891 until independence in 1964. This period was characterised by extractive agricultural practices in which colonially appropriated land was distributed to European settlers for growing export crops. Resident Malawians were exploited for agricultural labour (the ‘thangata’ system), and hut and poll taxes introduced to move Malawians into the labour market.⁵¹ After independence, Malawi was reliant on crop exports and labour emigration, firmly establishing structural poverty.⁵² Today, Malawi remains dependent on extractive modes of trade through export of raw materials for processing and manufacturing elsewhere.⁵³

Structural adjustment in 1981, precipitated by the oil crisis of the 1970s, brought financial assistance from the World Bank, conditional on extensive policy reforms.^{54 55} Trade liberalisation and deregulation opened countries such as Malawi to aggressive foreign markets with highly subsidised agriculture.⁵⁶ Enforced privatisation of national assets undermined democracy, harmed health, and removed social protection systems, particularly impacting vulnerable groups.^{54 56–58} In Malawi for example, forced economic restructuring to repay high-interest loans precipitated a famine which caused hundreds of deaths in 2001–2002.^{59 60}

Recent droughts and floods, intensified by climate crisis, add to the daily challenges of rural life. Widespread deforestation amplifies the damage in flood-hit areas. These situations are characterised by large-scale inequity. Globally, the richest 10% of the population are responsible for 52% of recent carbon emissions, while the poorest half generate only 7%.^{61 62} Food and economic insecurity are dominant issues in a population where smallholder farming accounts for 80% of food needs and where 38% live below the poverty line.^{63 64}