Medical history, metabolic syndrome and lifestyle habits

The medical history, medication, and lifestyle habits of the subjects were collected. The presence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) was defined by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria⁵⁴. The cutoff values for central obesity were applied in accordance with a well-validated previous Korean study⁵⁵. The MetS was defined by the presence of three or more of the following components: (1) waist circumference ≥ 90 cm for man and ≥ 85 cm for women, (2) systolic BP ≥ 130 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥ 85 mmHg or antihypertensive medication use, (3) HDL cholestrol < 1.04 mmol/L for men and 1.29 mmol/L for women, (4) triglyceride > 1.69 mmol/L, and (5) elevated fasting blood glucose ≥ 6.11 mmol/L or taking hypoglycemic agents.

Patients were categorized as non-smokers or current smokers based on their smoking habits. Significant alcohol consumption was defined as > 21 standard drinks/week in men and > 14 standard drinks/week in women over a 2-year period⁵⁶. Significant physical activity was defined as ≥ 3 exercise/week.