2.6. Mitochondrial respiration activity assay

For the mitochondrial function assay, human astrocytes (5 × 10⁴ cells/well) were plated on XF96 cell culture microplates (101085-004, Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA). The oxygen consumption rate (OCR), a parameter of mitochondrial oxygen consumption and respiration, was measured by a Seahorse XF96e bioanalyzer using the XF Mito Stress Test Kit (103015-100, Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The OCR levels were monitored and measured in cells treated with oligomycin (2 μM), FCCP (5 μM), rotenone (10 μM) and antimycin (10 μM).