Transwell chambers (Millipore, Boston, MA, USA) precoated with Matrigel were used to assess cell invasion. The transfected cells were suspended in serum-free medium, and 3 × 104 cells (500 μL) were added to the upper chamber. Medium containing 10% FBS was added to the lower chamber. Forty-eight hours later, the remaining cells in the upper chamber were removed by a cotton swab, and the invaded cells were washed with PBS, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, and stained with 0.1% crystal violet (Sigma). Three randomly selected visual fields under the microscope were used to count the number of invaded cells.
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