2.1. The study species

We studied five widespread tree species that have overlapping ranges in western Amazonia. Otoba parvifolia/glycycarpa (Myristicaceae), Clarisia biflora Ruiz & Pav., and Poulsenia armata (Miq.) Standl. (both Moraceae) are shade‐tolerant species characteristic of primary forest, while Ficus insipida Willd. (Moraceae) and Jacaratia digitata (Poepp. & Endl.) Solms (Caricaceae) are light‐demanding pioneer species that tend to grow in secondary forest. Pollen of these species is dispersed by different insects, and seeds are dispersed by animals (Table ​(Table1).1). These species were chosen because they are abundant in western Amazonia and are readily distinguished from congeneric species, thereby facilitating collection and correct identification of samples in the field. One taxonomically difficult exception was O. parvifolia/glycycarpa (Markgr.) A.H. Gentry that was not consistently distinguished morphologically from O. glycycarpa (Ducke) W. Rodrigues & T.S. Jaramillo. These two species were also not distinguished genetically using trnH‐psbA sequences (E.N. Honorio, unpublished data). Here, they are treated as one group of samples (O. parvifolia/glycycarpa) because both genetic evidence and morphological evidence suggest that they are the same species. The phylogeographies of four species are characterized in this study for the first time, while the phylogeographic patterns of F. insipida were previously published by Honorio Coronado et al. (2014) and da Costa et al. (2017).

Ecological characteristics of the five studied western Amazonia tree species