The quantum yields of CDs and dialysate were directly measured with the fluorescence spectrophotometer in integration sphere mode, based on the formula below:
The photons absorbed were the integrated fluorescence value of water minus the sample’s in the excitation range 380–450 nm, and the photons emitted were the integrated fluorescence value of the sample minus water’s in the fluorescent emission range 450–700 nm (Supplementary Fig. S13). The excitation wavelength was 420 nm.
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