Potential risk factors

Baseline demographics included age and gender. Stunted growth and malnutrition were defined as height-for-age and body mass index (BMI)-for-age Z-scores < −2, respectively.¹¹ HIV severity was categorized per World Health Organization (WHO) clinical staging criteria. Advanced HIV was defined as WHO HIV stages 3 and 4. Current antiretroviral therapy (ART) and co-trimoxazole use were based on self-report. CD4 count (cells/μL) was measured within 30 days of care initiation. We defined low CD4 as <200 cells/μL. Indoor biofuel burning was based on self-reported use of wood, charcoal or kerosene as energy sources within the adolescent’s home.