Participants

There were 52 participants in this study: 12 without low back pain (9 males and 3 females; mean age, 32.1 years; age range, 23–42 years) and 40 having low back pain (17 males and 23 females; mean age, 54.1 years; age range, 28–76 years). Based on history, medical records, clinical presentation, and also MRI findings, except disc degeneration, all participants were confirmed to have no active spine lesions such as tumour, infection, autoimmune diseases, etc. This study was approved by the local human research ethics committee, with written informed consents obtained from all participants.