Older adults

Of the 12 interventions among older adults, 11 were based on the Dalcroze approach. The activities consisted of Dalcroze exercises in which the participants expressed and responded to (improvised piano) music through (synchronized and improvised) body movements, including a variety of multitask exercises. Again, the exercises reflected the aims of the study. For example, in studies that examined gait and balance in dual-task conditions, the exercises challenged gait and balance but also functions of memory, attention, and coordination (Beauchet et al., 2003; Trombetti et al., 2011; Hars et al., 2014; Adamczyk et al., 2020, 2022) to integrate motor and cognitive functions simultaneously.

During a session, exercises gradually became more complex. For example, they started as single-task and then turned into multitask exercises. In some cases, exercises involved the handling of objects (such as percussion instruments or balls) (e.g., Trombetti et al., 2011). Basic exercises were comprised of walking (in time) with music and responding to its rhythmical changes. Exercises applied a wide range of movements and challenged balance by requiring multidirectional weight shifting, sequences of walking and turning, and exaggerated upper body movements (while walking or standing).

Dalcroze-based exercises could involve different rhythmic themes, such as double and triple speed or slowing down, rhythmic transformation, and polyrhythms (Adamczyk et al., 2020). In addition, “inhibition and stimulation of movement, exercises reflecting dynamic, agogic, and articulatory courses in music, improvisation of movements, and exercises shaping independence of movements and their coordination were performed” (Adamczyk et al., 2020, p. 2; see also Adamczyk et al., 2022). The interventions of Treviño and Álvarez-Bermúdez (2016, 2018a,b) and Treviño et al. (2018) applied the Dalcroze approach in carefully timed, structured, and sequenced sessions (Supplementary Appendix 2).

Choo et al. (2020) presented an original creative dance program designed as a community dance activity for people with dementia. It used music and natural gestures to construct a series of dance exercises. After the teaching period, the participants were guided to perform the practiced routine independently with the same music that included a variation. The program aimed to enhance the quality of life of people with dementia by providing memory stimulation, mood moderation, and social interaction.