DNA purification and genotyping were performed by the Centre National de Génotypage. DNA was extracted from whole-blood samples (∼10 ml) preserved in BD Vacutainer EDTA Tubes (Becton, Dickinson and Company) using the Gentra Puregene Blood Kit (QIAGEN), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. SNPs with call rates of <98%, minor allele frequency <1% or deviation from the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (P < 1.00 × 10−4) were excluded from analyses. Individuals with an ambiguous sex code, excessive missing genotypes (failure rate >2%) and outlying heterozygosity (heterozygosity rate of 3 s.d. from the mean) were also excluded.
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