2.2 Measures

In this study, challenging parenting behaviors were investigated using the English version of the Parent Challenging Parenting Behavior Questionnaire (CPBQ 4-6), revised by Majdandžić et al. (2018). This questionnaire consists of 39 items, including six dimensions: teasing, rough-and-tumble play, encouragement of risk-taking, social daring, competition, and modeling. It is scored on a five-point scale, with “not at all” scoring 1, “basically not” scoring 2, 3 points for “not sure,” 4 points for “mostly conform,” 5 points for “fully conform,” and reverse scores for questions 3 and 8. The higher the score, the higher the level of challenging parenting. This measure had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.931 and Majdandžić et al. (2018) confirmed that the structural validity index was good [χ²/df = 1.53, comparative fit indices (CFI) = 0.973, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.059].

In this study, children’s creative tendencies were measured using the Williams Creative Tendency Scale, revised by Lin and Wang (1999). The scale consists of 50 items, including four dimensions of risk-taking, curiosity, imagination, and challenge, and is scored on a 3-point scale, with “not at all” scoring 1, “partially” scoring 2, and “fully” scoring 3 points, and questions 4, 9, 12, 17, 29, 35, 45, and 48 were scored in reverse. Children with higher scores demonstrate more creative tendencies. This measure had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.933 and the structural validity index was good [χ²/df = 9.827, RMSEA = 0.059, standard root mean square residuals (SRMR) = 0.068]. And Huang et al. (2021) measured the validity of the Williams Creative Tendency Scale using the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking as the criterion, confirmed that it has good reliability and validity.

In this study, positive affect in children was measured using the Positive/Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) devised by Watson et al. (1988), and the Chinese version of PANAS was revised and introduced by Huang et al. (2003). The scale consists of 20 adjective entries reflecting emotions, including two subscales of positive and negative emotions, and is scored on a five-point scale, with “almost none” scoring 1, “relatively little” scoring 2, “moderate” scoring 3, “relatively much” scoring 4, and “extremely much” scoring 5. The higher the positive emotion score, the more energetic the individual is and the happier and more focused the emotional state is; the higher the negative emotion score, the more subjectively confused the individual feels and the more distressed the emotional state is (Zhang, 2001). This measure had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.817 and the structural validity index was good (χ²/df = 18.511, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.083).

In this study, children’s creative self-efficacy was measured using the Creative Self-Efficacy Scale (CSE) of the Short Form of Creative Self (SSCS), which was devised by Watson et al. (1988). The scale has six items and is scored on a five-point scale, with “not at all” scoring 1, “not basically” scoring 2, “not sure” scoring 3, “basically” scoring 4, and “fully conforming” scoring 5. The higher the score, the higher the child’s sense of self-efficacy for creativity. This measure had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.903 and the structural validity index was good (χ²/df = 8.413, CFI = 0.991, RMSEA = 0.054).