Demographic characteristics and socioeconomic data collection and measurements

Demographic characteristics and socioeconomic status (age, gender, occupation, income, education level, level of alcohol intake, smoking and physical activity) were obtained by trained staff for each participant using a questionnaire. Weight, height, systolic and diastolic blood pressure of participants were directly measured in the community. Body-mass index (BMI) was calculated based on the body weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared: two categories were recognized for data analysis based on the Asia-Pacific population BMI classification, <22.9 kg/m² and ≥ 23 kg/m² [29]. Systolic blood pressure of ≥140 mm Hg and diastolic ≥ 90 mm Hg were used as hypertension cut-off [30]. Smoking and alcohol intake histories were categorized as No or Yes and also as previous or current. Partaking of regular exercise until breaking a sweat was categorized as Yes or No.