Measures

Cognitive ability was assessed using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI; Wechsler 1999) for all participants recruited through the larger research study. Additional participant data was collected from a clinical database, in which cognitive ability was assessed using the WASI, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler 2003), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III; Wechsler 1997), or the Differential Ability Scales-Second Edition (DAS-II; Elliott 2007). The full scale IQ score (reported as a standard score) was utilized as a cutoff for inclusion in the sample, as well as in hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses.

The parent form of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia et al. 2000) was used to assess executive function (EF) abilities. The BRIEF is an informant-report questionnaire that was developed to identify everyday EF abilities in children ages 5–18 and divides EF skills into two broad Indices: the Behavioral Regulation Index (the ability to inhibit, shift and modulate behaviors and emotions appropriately) and the Metacognition Index (the ability to cognitively plan, organize, and manage information and tasks and monitor performance); and a Global Executive Composite (GEC) score. T-scores are generated for each index score and the GEC.

Adaptive behavior was assessed using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II; Sparrow et al. 2005). The Vineland-II assesses adaptive behavior skills in individuals from birth to age 90 and divides adaptive behavior into three broad domains: communication skills, daily living skills, and social skills, as well as motor skills in children under age 5 (thus, not included in the present analyses). Standard scores are generated for each domain, as well as for the Adaptive Behavior Composite (ABC). The Survey Interview format was used for the present study.

The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach and Rescorla 2001) was used to assess emotional and behavioral problems. The CBCL is a parent-report questionnaire normed for children ages 6–18. It identifies psychological symptoms in two broad domains: internalizing and externalizing. Within these domains, symptoms are further broken down in 8 syndrome scales. The CBCL also categorizes symptoms in 6 DSM-oriented scales, although these scales were not utilized in the present study. T-scores are generated for each scale. Scales of interest in the present study included: Internalizing Problems, Externalizing Problems, Withdrawn/Depressed, Social Problems, and Thought Problems.