Design, study population, and data collection

This was a cross-sectional, descriptive correlational study. Over a 5-month period, a convenience sample of participants from 21 to 70 years old with T2DM was recruited from an endocrinology clinic in close proximity to the authors’ university. Recruiting efforts included the placement of flyers in the clinic’s exam rooms and research office as well as face-to-face contact by the PI with potential participants. Potential participants who expressed interest in the study were screened for eligibility by the PI and a member of the clinic’s research staff by asking potential participants questions based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria were as follows: ages from 21 to 70; living with diabetes for at least 1 year; ability to read, speak, and understand English. Because survey responses from participants with dementia can be unreliable, those previously diagnosed with dementia were excluded as well. Patients with hypertension and hyperlipidemia were included. Those with type 1 diabetes or who did not know what type they had were also excluded.

One hundred and eighty-five potential participants were screened. After the inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, 135 patients remained. These participants received paper copies of the study’s survey instruments as well as an addressed/stamped envelope to return the surveys to the primary investigator. They were advised that return of their questionnaires to the primary investigator signified informed consent. Of them, 122 returned surveys. Two patients who returned the survey were excluded because they indicated that they had been diagnosed with cognitive impairment (Alzheimer’s disease and impairment after a stroke) when asked to list other co-morbidities; the final sample included 120 participating patients.