General nutrition knowledge questionnaire—revised [GNKQ-R; 31]

The GNKQ-R is an 88-item measure tapping awareness of dietary recommendations, healthy eating, and the impact of eating behavior on health and health conditions. The GNKQ was found to be reliable and sensitive to change with nutrition education, as well as externally valid, with dietetics students, participants with more education, and participants with better physical health status scoring higher [31]. Because the GNKQ was developed in the UK, several items that referred to UK-specific dietary recommendations were changed to refer instead to Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommendations in the United States (i.e., Item 9, “eatwell plate” was change to “MyPlate”). Wording of several other items were changed to describe foods using American, rather than UK, terminology (e.g., Item 7, “biscuits, cakes and pastries” to “cookies, cakes, and pastries,” and “rapeseed oil” to “canola oil”). GNKQ-R scores were expressed as percentage of questions answered correctly.