2.3. Questionnaires

All subjects were evaluated for depression using MINI version 7.0.2. The MINI is a structured interview that can accurately diagnose depression based on DSM-V diagnostic criteria [32,33]. Thirty-three subjects in the ND did not present subjective depression. It was further confirmed via the MINI that a major depressive episode was not currently applicable.

The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) was used to evaluate the objective depression severity among the subjects. The HDRS, which is comprised of 17 items relating to depression severity, is rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (severe). A score of 17 or higher indicates moderate depression, while 24 or higher indicates severe depression [34,35,36].

The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) was used to evaluate the participants’ subjective depression. The PHQ-9 was developed as a screening scale for depression and comprises nine items that are rated using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day). Scores of 10 points or higher indicate moderate to severe depression [37,38,39].

Anxiety was evaluated using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) [40]. The BAI comprises 21 items that are rated using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely). A score of 10 points or higher indicates mild anxiety, while 19 or higher indicates moderate anxiety [41]. Based on the findings of a meta-analysis conducted in 2016, pathological anxiety was suggested as an evaluation for scores from 16 to 20 points or higher [42].

In addition, previous research showed that impulsiveness was found to be associated with depression and anxiety in men [43]. Impulsivity was thus evaluated using the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS). The BIS was developed in 1959 to evaluate impulsive personality traits, and the 11th version of the scale (BIS-11) is currently the most widely used [44,45,46]. The BIS-11 consists of 30 questions that are rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always).