Cell Culture Experiments.

This study utilized a diverse range of cell culture models, comprising cancer cells such as HeLa (cervical cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer), and U87 (glioblastoma), in addition to human fibroblasts (HDF) and macrophages (RAW 264.7 and THP-1). Experiments were performed under both isolated and coculture conditions, with different cell types being cocultured to study their interactive behavior. For macrophages, the effects of the treatments on gene expression were investigated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Gene expression assays for Arginase 1, NOS2, TNF, and CD163 were specifically conducted to evaluate the macrophages’ polarization responses to different metabolites and culture conditions.

Detailed information about the fabrication of SERS substrates with CTAC-capped gold nanoparticles, the performance of cell experiments including the production of conditioned media, SERS measurements and equipment used, and complementary analysis by LC–MS, RNA-seq, and qPCR can be found in SI Appendix.