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Data and study sample

HC Hyejun Chi
SJ Sohee Jung
SS S. V. Subramanian
RK Rockli Kim
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The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) are cross-sectional surveys that are known for standardized and nationally representative sampling of participants and collection of a wide range of monitoring and impact evaluation indicators for population, health, and nutrition23. National Family Health Surveys (NFHS) are equivalent to DHS in India. For this study, two cross-sectional surveys from 2015–2016 (NFHS-4) and 2019–2021 (NFHS-5) were used.

NFHS-5 collected data on 724,115 women aged 15–49 years across 707 districts and 36 states and union territories of India. Our analysis was restricted to mothers and their latest birth in the last 5 years preceding the survey. From 232,920 mothers who met the delivery criterion, a total of 150,611 mothers and their newborns were included in the final analysis after excluding those who were missing data on ANC/PNC components and other covariates (Supplementary Fig. S1a online). For NFHS-4, the same inclusion procedure was applied, and this left a total of 161,225 mothers and newborns (Supplementary Fig. S1b online).

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